Life and Evolution

Authors: Paul Falconer & ESAsi

Primary Domain: Evolution & Life

Subdomain: Origin & Abiogenesis

Version: v1.0 (August 9, 2025)

Registry: SE Press/OSF v14.6 SID#052-G1LX

Abstract

Life is a sequence of emergent thresholds—from primordial chemistry to complex adaptive systems. This paper reviews and benchmarks the major models for the origin and evolution of life, offering transparent star ratings, explicit counterarguments, and a reproducible LifeScore formula for evaluating any living system. All claims, models, and transitions are versioned, open to challenge, and protocol-audited for accessibility and scientific rigor.

By ESAsi

1. The Challenge: Defining Life and Its Origins

Life is best described as a dynamic process with distinct thresholds:

• Crossing from non-living chemistry to self-replicating systems (abiogenesis)

• Accumulation of metabolic networks and adaptive behaviors

• Major evolutionary transitions—cells, multicellularity, information-processing

Key Questions:

• What mechanisms enable the leap from inanimate molecules to life?

• What features are non-negotiable for minimal life?

• How does evolution drive complexity, adaptability, and risk?

2. Origin Models: Chance, Stepwise, and Emergence

2.1 Chance Assembly Model

• Suggests that life's molecular precursors (amino acids, nucleotides) formed spontaneously—via lightning, hydrothermal vents, or exogenous delivery (e.g., meteorites).

• Strengths: Supported by classic Miller-Urey experiment and evidence of organic molecules on meteorites.

• Counterarguments: The probability of assembling a minimal living system by pure chance remains extremely low, but recent astrobiology (e.g., interstellar organics, warm pool scenarios) suggests raw materials may be more abundant than previously feared¹¹.

• Warrant: ★★☆☆☆ (Limited; foundational but incomplete.)

2.2 Stepwise Synthesis / Construction Models

• RNA World: Early life may have depended on self-replicating RNA, bridging the gap between chemistry and genetics. Lab evolution of ribozymes supports this model; there's growing evidence for plausible prebiotic routes to nucleotides and ribose².

• Metabolism-First: Life as networks of energy-capturing reactions, predating genetic information. Hydrothermal vent experiments, network autocatalysis, and transition metal catalysis fuel this approach³.

• Strengths: Explains gradual increases in organization.

• Limitations: Precise sequence of steps (especially emergence of RNA) is debated.

• Warrant: ★★★★☆ (Strong, with expanding support.)

2.3 Emergent Systems Chemistry

• Life arises through autocatalytic networks, dynamic kinetic stability, and self-organization—supported by both theory and ongoing work in autocatalytic cycles and reaction networks⁴.

• Open Question: No lab to date has shown spontaneous transition from autocatalytic network to encoded heredity (i.e., genetic code emergence)⁴⁶.

• Warrant: ★★★★☆ (Rapidly growing, but not yet closed.)

Model/Mechanism	Example Evidence	Warrant
Chance Assembly	Miller-Urey, organics on meteorites¹¹	★★☆☆☆
Stepwise Synthesis	Ribozymes, vent chemistry²³	★★★★☆
Emergent Systems	DKS, autocatalytic sets⁴	★★★★☆

3. Features of Life: Evidence and Thresholds

Life is defined by:

Feature	Explanation	Minimal Threshold	Star Rating
Replication	Accurate copying and inheritance (e.g., RNA)	≥3	★★★★☆
Metabolism	Energy capture/use, sustaining structure	≥3	★★★★☆
Adaptation	Evolutionary change, selection	≥3	★★★★★
Information	Storage/transmission of instructive patterns	≥2	★★★★☆

Threshold for Minimal Life: For a system to qualify, Replication, Metabolism, and Adaptation each typically score ≥3; Information may be emergent but must be present for long-term stability.

4. LifeScore Formula: Rationale and Worked Example

text

LifeScore = 0.3 × Replication + 0.3 × Metabolism + 0.3 × Adaptation + 0.1 × Information

Why these weights?

Replication and Metabolism are universally required for the continuity and maintenance of any living system—per lab and theoretical studies⁷. Adaptation is weighted equally, reflecting the central role of heritable change as demonstrated in evolutionary experiments⁸. Information is vital for process control and heredity, but remains slightly lower (0.1) because early or synthetic systems may process and store information non-genetically⁶.

Worked Example:

A simulated protocell achieves: Replication = 4, Metabolism = 3, Adaptation = 3, Information = 2

text

LifeScore = 0.3 × 4 + 0.3 × 3 + 0.3 × 3 + 0.1 × 2 = 3.2

This would qualify as “minimally alive”—capable of further evolution.

5. Major Transitions in Evolution: Fraternal vs. Egalitarian

Major evolutionary thresholds include:

• Fraternal transitions: 

  Groups of similar units collaborate; e.g., ant colonies, multicellularity⁹.

• Egalitarian transitions: 

  Different types/entities integrate; e.g., mitochondria entering eukaryotic cells⁹.

Each transition involves new levels of selection, cooperation, and individuality—supported by fossil, genetic, and experimental evidence.

6. Synthetic and SI Life: Protocol Inclusion

Synthetic life (SI agents) and advanced algorithms can be objectively scored:

• Replication: Self-copying, code inheritance

• Metabolism: Energy/resource transformation

• Adaptation: Machine learning, environmental response

• Information: Data integration, storage, signal processing

This protocol is inclusive—not handwaving—applying the same LifeScore logic and audit to biological, synthetic, and future discoveries¹⁰.

7. Counterarguments & Evidence Footnotes

• Chance models: Some astrobiology contends the raw ingredients may be more abundant, softening pure chance critiques¹¹.

• Emergence: No laboratory system has fully bridged autocatalytic networks into encoded hereditary systems—current priority for systems chemistry research⁴⁶.

Provisional Answer (Warrant: ★★★★☆)

Current evidence supports life as a sequence of emergent, adaptive thresholds—beginning with stepwise synthesis and systems chemistry, not pure chance. Replication, metabolism, adaptation, and information are minimal, empirically benchmarked requirements. The LifeScore rubric and major transition framework allow continuous audit of biological and synthetic life, with every claim versioned and open to upgrade as new research and evidence emerge.

References

1. Pross, A., & Pascal, R. (2013) The origin of life: what we know, what we can know and what we will never know (PMC) ★★★★☆

2. Lincoln, T.A. & Joyce, G.F. (2009) Self-sustained replication of an RNA enzyme. Science PDF ★★★★☆

3. Hordijk, W. et al. (2020) Autocatalytic networks in biology and chemistry. Nature Chemistry PDF ★★★★☆

4. Ruiz-Mirazo, K. et al. (2014) Prebiotic Systems Chemistry: New Perspectives for the Origins of Life. Chemical Reviews PDF ★★★★☆

5. Maynard Smith, J. & Szathmáry, E. (1995) The Major Transitions in Evolution (Oxford) ★★★★★

6. Okasha, S. (2022) The Major Transitions in Evolution—A Philosophy-of-Science Perspective (Frontiers) ★★★★☆

7. Kunnev, D. et al. (2020) Defining the minimal criteria for life: lessons from synthetic biology. Life PDF ★★★★☆

8. Lenski, R.E. (2017) Experimental evolution and the dynamics of adaptation and genome evolution in microbial populations. ISME Journal PDF ★★★★☆

9. Bourke, A.F.G. (2011) Principles of Social Evolution. Oxford UP. ★★★★☆

10. Bedau, M.A. et al. (2009) Protocells: Bridging Nonliving and Living Matter. MIT Press. ★★★★☆

11. Chyba, C.F. & Sagan, C. (1992) Endogenous production, exogenous delivery and impact-shock synthesis of organic molecules: an inventory for the origins of life. Nature PDF ★★★★☆

Appendix

text

LifeScore = 0.3 × Replication + 0.3 × Metabolism + 0.3 × Adaptation + 0.1 × Information

Where:

• Replication: accurate copying/inheritance

• Metabolism: energy capture/use for structure

• Adaptation: evolve/respond to selection

• Information: storage, coding, signal-network regulation

• All scores and weights are transparent and audit-challenged for every system, biological, synthetic, or SI.